Canadian Glacier Inventory Project - Recently Updated Pages

Kaskawulsh Glacier

Geo_Librarian — Sun, 20 Jan 2008 12:11:39 CST

Aerial view of the Kaskawulsh Glacier (Source: Alaska and Canada, www.geo.uu.nl/fg/berendsen/photography/alaska. Photography by H.J.A. Berendsen)

Location: The Kaskawulsh Glacier extends from the northeastern slope of the St. Elias Mountains in the Yukon Territory. Meltwater flows into the Pacific Ocean and the Alsek and Yukon River system in the north (Dewart, 1968).

Images:

The accumulation area of the Kaskawulsh Glacier. (Source: University of Iowa. http://128.255.52.149/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/geoscience&CISOPTR=2282&REC=3. Picture taken by Richard G. Baker)

Click here to view historical aerial photographs of the Kaskawulsh Glacier.

Click here to see photographs contributed by Janet Gersh.

Glacier Behaviour:
The Kaskawulsh Glacier is retreating and this has and will continue to have an adverse effect on the water levels of the Kluane Lake (Johnson, 2007).

The Kluane Lake is the largest lake in the Yukon Territory, with its water extend for 70km and draining north into the Yukon River. The lake is considered one of the Yukon's "crown jewels" and preservation of the lakes beauty is important to the province. Today, approximately 80 percent of the meltwater from the Kaskawulsh Glacier flows northwards, through the Slims River and into Kluane Lake; the other 20 percent flows into the Kaskawulsh River and then flows east and south into the Alsek River, which drains into the Pacific Ocean. However, this pattern is slowly reversing every ten years, resulting in a drop in the water levels of the Kluane Lake (Johnson, 2007).

A satellite image of the Kaskawulsh Glacier. This image gives a clear picture of the numerous tributaries converging into the Kaskawulsh Glacier. The Slims River and Kaskawulsh River are located in the top right corner in which the Kaskawulsh Glacier drains into. (Source: From the archrives of the U.S.G.S. Glacier Studies Project. Map reference: Mount St. Elias map sheet 115B and 115C, 1:250 000 scale)

Glacier Characteristics:
The Kaskawulsh Glacier is the result of two converging outlet glaciers, the Central and North Arms.

The Central Arm is heavily crevassed with many small steep glaciers which feed the Arm from both sides (Dewart, 1968).

The North Arm receives many small glaciers from the north slope which separates it from the Central Arm (Dewart, 1968).

Type: The glacier moves outward from 2000-3000m in elevation from the St. Elias Mountains and separates into broad valley glaciers. Its' lowest elevation is at sea level where it becomes a coastal piedmont glacier. (Dewart, 1968)

Altitude: 2000-3000m above sea level

Length: 350km from the Alsek River to the Chugach Mountains (Dewart, 1968)

Width: Central arm has a width of ~3.5km and the North arm is ~2km. Where the two arms converge to form the Kaskawulsh glacier, the width is 5-6km (Dewart, 1968)

Volume/Mass:The Kaskawulsh Glacier covers more than 25 000 sq. km. and forms part of a continuous icefield.

References:
Dewart, G., 1968. Seismic Investigation of Ice Properties and Bedrock Topography at the Confluence of Two Glaciers, Kaskawulsh Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada. Institute of Polar Studies, Report No. 27

Feature and Place Names shown on 'Kluane Glacier (NTS 115B14)' http://www.yukonbooks.com/topo_maps/web/
map_locations.php?nts=115B14&YBTOPOMAPS=q0354i9hbf3is8e2o1s64qoan4. Accessed on February 6, 2007

Johnson, P., 2007. Kluane Glaciers in Retreat. http://www.taiga.net/yourYukon/col193.html. Accessed on February 6, 2007

Photos of Kaskawulsh Glacier

Geo_Librarian — Sun, 20 Jan 2008 12:06:39 CST

Janet Gersh sent this message and the following images:

"Hi,
I found this email address on the McMaster University, Canadian Glacier Inventory Project site. I was looking at this site because as we were flying home from Fairbanks, Alaska last summer, I looked out the window of the airplane. There, in the break of the clouds was an enormous glacial field. I started taking pictures like mad. We were 40,000 feet up so I got a wide expanse of ground.

When we returned home, I got on google maps and generally found the area I was looking for. From there, looking at pictures online, I found the name of the glacier. Your website was excellent in its information."
(Monday 26 November 2007)

"In answer to your questions, you may include my comments and pictures on the wiki site. The Kaskawulsh Glacier pictures were taken June 23 about 9:30 PM Eastern Daylight Time (as that is what my camera is set to and I'm not sure what time zone the Yukon is in). I've always thought that glaciers are amazing and was very excited when I realized what I was seeing out the plane window. I was happy to find the McMaster U site because it answered many of the questions I had about the glacier and the area. The descriptions are clearly written.

I hope you find the photos helpful."
(Tuesday 27 November 2007)

Home

Geo_Librarian — Fri, 21 Dec 2007 14:45:26 CST

Canadian Glacier Inventory Project is a project being developed by fourth year students in the School of Geography and Earth Sciences at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. All information presented here is unedited content, supplied by our students. For more information on this project, contact mapref@mcmaster.ca.

Introduction
There is considerable concern about the effects of global climate warming and the impact that melting glaciers will have on ecosystems, energy and water resources, and global sea levels.

Canada has more glacial ice than any other country in the world (except Greenland) but some research has shown that many of its glaciers are receding at an alarming rate. Since the early 1900’s southern parts of the Canadian Rockies have lost approximately 25% glacial cover, and some glaciers have lost up to 70% of their volume. It has been suggested that many small glaciers in the Rockies will disappear within 20 years.

The aim of this project is to create a web-based inventory of Canadian glaciers that records their current characteristics and past history. We will update this resource regularly to evaluate how extensively Canadian glaciers have receded in recent time.

Inventory Areas

The map below shows the main areas which the project will focus on. These areas have been subdivided into specific regions. For more information on a specific region please refer to the links below.

Canadian Arctic (Orange areas)
- Axel-Heiberg Island
- Ellesmere Island
- Baffin Island

British Columbia and Yukon (Red Areas)
- B.C. Coast South
- B.C. Coast North
- Yukon South

Rockies (Blue Areas)

opps.

Sweedie — Sat, 28 Apr 2007 16:47:48 CDT

Annotated Bibliography

sarahj13 — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 22:42:09 CDT

Braun, Carsten. University of Massachusetts - Department of Geosciences.(2003). Land-Atmosphere-Ice and Snow Interactions in the High Arctic: the Hazen Plateau, Ellesmere Island. March 20, 2007, from:www.geo.umass.edu/climate/hazen/field23.html

This website provided relevant information and diagrams, specifically to do with studies of mass balance, and current research in this study area. Also, there were many colour/detailed photos and research methods provided.

Canadian Space Agency. (2007). Feature Image on Home Page. March 8, 2007, from: Canadian Space Agency

The Canadian Space Agency website provided an image of the current location of the ice island compared to the location of the original separation point.

Environment Canada. (2007). Ayles Ice Shelf. March 7, 2007, from: Environment Canada

This website was very informative about the breakup of Ayles Ice Shlef. It had photos and information about when and what happened when the Ayles Ice Island broke off. It also had many useful links to other websites.

Environment Canada. (2004). Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000. March 5, 2007, from: Environment Canada

This particular website was used to compile climate data for Ellesmere Island. The raw data on the site provided the data used to make the graphs located on the Weather Facts page. The extreme weather values were also used as interesting facts on the page.

HeartSpring.net. (2007). Enormous ice shelf snaps off in Arctic - Powerful breakup Picked Up By Quake Monitors. March 7, 2007, from: HeartSpring.net

This website provided an animation of the breakup of the Ayles Ice Shelf. It also provided background knowledge of the breakup.

Horrocks, Karen. (2003). MODIS Rapid Response System: Image Gallery. February 16, 2007, from: http://rapidfire.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/?2003190-0709

The above website was very helpful for satellite images of Ellesmere Island. It was used to compile a time lapse series of photos showing the progression of ice on the island. It was also one of the sites where the most current satellite photos of the island were found.

Koerner, R. (2002). Glaciers of Canada: Glaciers of the High Arctic Islands. Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the world. Febuary 12, 2007 from http://pubs.usgs.gov/prof/p1386j/hiarctic/hiarctic-lores.pdf.

This article was very useful in providing detailed satellite photos of several glaciers on Ellesmere. Also it contained research pertaining to ice velocity, mass balance, ice coverage, as well as a little background information on the island. It was particularly useful because it was more recent than much of the material available on Ellesmere Island.

Marsh, James. (2007). The Canadian Encylopedia: Ellesmere Island. March 1, 2007, from: http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002578

This reference was used to gather the initial information about Ellesmere. The site was helpful in providing general characteristics about the island such as its location and size. It was also used for its pictures in various areas of the site.

Naional Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).(2007).
www.nasa.gov. / http://visibeearth.nasa.gov/

The NASA website was used for some satellite imagery, and to provide brief summaries of information gathered by the data collected.

National Snow and Ice Data Center. 1999, updated 2005. World glacier inventory. World Glacier Monitoring Service and
National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center for Glaciology. Boulder, CO. Digital media. February 10, 2007, from: http://nsidc.org/data/docs/noaa/g01130_glacier_inventory/

This reference was used to obtain various measurement values for the glaciers on Ellesmere Island. This reference was also very helpful in determining the names of some of the glaciers on Ellesmere.

Natural Resources Canada. (2007). The Atlas of Canada. February 5, 2007, from: http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/index.html

The Natural Resources Canada site was extremely helpful for the glaciers page of the website. It provided pictures, latitude and longitude coordinates and some general characteristics for many of the glaciers on the island. The website served as an excellent starting point when researching the many glaciers on Ellesmere.

Science Daily. (2006). Ice shelf breaks off in Candian Arctic. March 7, 2007, from: Science Daily

This website was useful in gaining additional knowledge about the separation of Ayles Ice Shelf.

Wright, John.(1940). South-East Ellesmere Island The Geographical Journal, Vol. 95, No. 4 (Apr., 1940), pp. 278-291 doi:10.2307/1788464, March 21, 2007, from: JSTOR (2000-2007) http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398%28194004%2995%3A4%3C278%3ASEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-A&size=LARGE

This website provided very interesting material for the Ellesmere Island website. The documents from available provided a glimpse into the history of research and discovery on Ellesmere Island, and made it possible to show how far research has come in the last century.

Neve Icefield

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:32:40 CDT

Fast Facts!
1) Icefield size: 35km2
2) Drainage:

East to Pitt River
Southwest to Ring Creek
Northwest to Garibaldi Lake

The Little Ice Age

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:28:34 CDT

The Little Ice Age is known as a cooling period occurring between the 13th and 19th Century. During this time there has been documented evidence of glacial expansion almost worldwide (McGuire, 2006).

Colours closest to red and appearing at the front of the graph are from most recent studies and those cloeser to blue and at the back of the graph are from older data.

Figure: Reconstructed depth of the LIA, varying with different studies (McGuire, 2006)

A large extent of mountain glaciers had been mapped by late 1800 and between this time and 1975 the snowlines of these glaciers retreated approximately 100m.

In Glacier National Park for example, the last advance of its glaciers occurred between late 1800 and early 1900, resulting in the finale of the Little Ice Age in Canada.

Return to Garibaldi Provincial Park
Return to Mt. Waddington Region

References:
McGuire, Bill [2006]. Dangerous Climate Change: rising sea-levels and ocean circulation changes. Benfield Hazard

Research Centre (online). Available: http://www.benfieldhrc.org/activities/issues5/pages/primer.htm Accessed: March 2007

Homathko Icefield

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:24:40 CDT

(Heinl, 2006)

Fast Facts

Area	3,939 sq km / 1,521 sq miles Area may include lowland areas
Extent	North to South: 102 km / 63 miles East to West: 74 km / 46 miles
Highest Elevation	Mount Queen Bess (3298 m/10,820 ft)
Latitude	51° 17' N
Longitude	124° 31' W
Map Link	Microsoft Local.Live Map

(Peak Bagger, 2004)

References:
Heinl, Russ [2006]. Homathko Icefield. Britishcolumbia.com (online). Available:

http://www.britishcolumbia.com/photogallery/slideshow.asp?pictureID=264&sizeID=2 Accessed: March 2007.

Peak Bagger [2004]. Homathko Icefield. Peakbagger.com (online). Available:

http://www.peakbagger.com/range.aspx?rid=12130 Accessed: March 2007.

Overlord Glacier

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:10:26 CDT

Fast Facts!

Latitude	50°01'00"N
Longitude	122°50'00"W
Area	4.1km2

Crevassses Exposed on Overlord Glacier

(Labecki, 2002)

Historical Positions of Overlord Glacier

(Modified from Koch, 2006).

Overlord Glacier Mass Changes in the 20th Century

Year	Behaviour	Amount of Change (m2)	Rate of change (m/year)
1929	retreat	250	28
1949	retreat	650	33
1969	retreat/advance	120	6
1980	advance/retreat	100	9
1996	retreat	120	8
2002	retreat	60	10

(Source: Koch, 2006)

Return to Garibaldi Provincial Park

References:
Koch, Johannes [2006]. Holocene glacier fluctuations in Garibaldi Provincial Park, Southern Coast Mountains, British

Columbia. Unpublished.

Labecki, Marek [2002]. Overlord Glacier. University of British Columbia (online).

Available:http://www.iam.ubc.ca/~marek/Hiking/html/Fissile.html Accessed: March 2007.

Oval Glacier

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:09:37 CDT

Formerly Parallel Glacier

Fast Facts

Longitude	51° 29' N
Latitude	125° 15' W
Aspect	NE
Elevation	1260 m

(Laroque & Smith, 2003)

Return to Mt. Waddington Region

References:
Laroque, S.J., and Smith, D.J. [2003]. Little Ice Age glacial activity in the Mt. Waddington area, British Columbia Coast

Mountains, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 40 pp1413-1436.

Nirvana Glacier

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:07:26 CDT

Fast Facts

Longitude	51°39' N
Latiditude	125°12' W
Aspect	E
Elevation	1800m

(Laroque & Smith, 2003)

Return to Mt. Waddington Region

References:
Laroque, S.J., and Smith, D.J. [2003]. Little Ice Age glacial activity in the Mt. Waddington area, British Columbia Coast

Mountains, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 40 pp1413-1436.

Lillooet Icefield Region

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 08:04:22 CDT

The region known as the Lillooet Icefield is technically not the official name of the icefield in this area. The region was given this nickname because of the many glaciers that are in close proximity to the Lillooet River.
The region was named after a group of aboriginal peoples who inhabited the area. Nonetheless, the term icefield has been attached to the region despite the lack of an offical icefield on this range.

Location of Lillooet Icefield and Lillooet Glacier

Figure: Location of Lillooet Icefield and Lillooet Glacier. (Modified from Natural Resources Canada and Google Earth)

The Lilooet Icefield is located on the Southern Coastal Mountains of British Columbia. There are eight glaciers that radiate out from the Lilooet Icefield:

Bishop Glacier – 50 47' 00”N, 123 54’ 00”W
Bridge Glacier – 50 50’ 00”N, 123 34’ 00”W
Dalglesh Glacier – 50 41’40”N, 123 50’ 00”W
Magaera Glacier – 50,49’100”N, 123 52’ 00”W
Lillooet Glacier - 50 45’00”N, 123, 45’ 00”W
Necwtinoaz Glacier – 50 49’10”N, 123 47’ 45”W
Ring Glacier – 50 48’ 00”N, 123 50’ 00"W
Sirenia Glacier - 50 39’ 00”N, 123 47’ 00”W

LILLOOET GLACIER

Figure: Lilooet Glacier showing medial moraine, and lateral moraines (Reyes, 2001).

Figure: Lillooet Glacier showing lateral moraines (Jakob, 2002).

The most famous of these glaciers is Lillooet Glacier. This glacier feeld the Lilooet River which is part of the Lillooet-Harrison Drainage basin. This is part of a greater system of the Fraser Valley Basin. Lillooet Glacier, is a 9.5 km long, 1.5km wide valley glacier that flows to the southwest from its accumulation area to altitudes approximately 1100 above sea-level. The glacier terminates in the upper Lillooet River Valley as meltwater drains into the fluvial system. Presently the glacier has been in a state or retreat since the Little Ice Age Maximum. To date, the glacier has retreated roughly 5km from the terminal moraine deposited at the maximum extent of the glacier.
(Reyes & Clague, 2004)

Glacial Activity

Lillooet Glacier is a world renowned glacier in the academic world. Lillooet has been a fundamental research location for understanding and the mapping of Late Holocene advances and retreats, including the most recent, known as the Little Ice Age. The Lillooet region has an extensive moraine and till deposits. These deposits are significant because they are seperated by well-preserved paleosols and woody vegetation. These soils and vegetation were able to be radiocarbondated. The radiocarbon data from the tills and moraines illustrated five periods of glaciation.
(Reyes & Clague, 2004)

YEARS OF GLACIATION (14C YBP)	ACTIVITY
Prior to 3000 Early Holocene	Advance
Approximately 3000 Middle Neoglacial	Advance
Approximately 2500 Tiedemann	Advance
Approximately 1700-1400* Post-Tiedemann-Pre LIA	Advance
Little Ice Age LIA	Advance

Data from the Lillooet Galcier is significant because it illustrates a period of previously unrecognised glacial aactivity The period from 1700-1400 14C BYP identifies a period of glacial advance. The radiocarbon dates from the paleosols and vegetation correlate to data with other glaciers in the region. The radiocarbon data also correelates with the substrate stratigraphy and exposed sediments. These tills and moraines were previously considered part of the deposits from existing previous glacial activity. However, the new C14 data allowed resarchers to reinterpreate the sediments as part of a glacial advance from ~1700-1400 YBP (Reyes & Clague, 2004)

Post-Tiedemann-Pre-Little Ice Age Advance:

This period of glacial advance identified via paleosol analysis characterized by local glacial advance of glaciers in the South Coast Mountains. The minor glacial retreat prior to the advance as long enough to allow for substantial growth of terrestrial vegetation namly trees. It is estimated that this period was approximately 100 years according to tree-ring analysis. The advance of these glaciers during this period allowed for Lillooet Glacier to over run the vegetation developed during the ~100yr retreat. Crude correlations of glacial advance have been made in the Rocky Mountains via similar C14 dating of tree reminants. Well documented advances of Tebenkof Glacier in Alaska ~1500 14C YBP have been correlated to the advance of Lillooet Glacier during ~1700-1400 14C YBP (Reyes & Clague, 2004).

Figure: Schematic timeline of glacial advances and retreats of Lillooet Glacier. Data correlated from radiocarbon dates and interptretation of glacially deposited sediment. (Reyes & Clague, 2004)

Sedimentary Deposits

The tills, moraines and gullies created by the multiple advances and retreats of the Lillooet Glacier have been instrumental in the recent interpretations of the newly identified period of glacial advance.

Figure: Locations of sedimentary features for logs below. The image also depicts the glacial positions in
1947,1959 and 2002 (Reyes & Clague, 2004).

Figure: North Gulley Sediment Log showing paleosol, tree fragments, C14 dates.
(Reyes & Clague, 2004)

Figure: Proximal Gulley Sediment Log Lillooet Glacier, showing paleosols and tree remnants.
(Reyes & Clague, 2004)

Where to Next?
Return to BC Coast Study Area
Find Out More About Post-Tiedemann-Pre Little Ice Age Advance

References:
Jakob, Matthias [2002]. Lillooet Glacier, B.C., Canada. Advancing the Science of Limnology and Oceanography (online).

Available: http://aslo.org/photopost/showphoto.php?photo=411&papass=&sort=1&thecat=501 Accessed: march 2007.

Reyes, A.V. and Clague, J.J. [2004]. Stratigraphic evidence for multiple Holocene advances of Lillooet Glacier, southern Coast

Mountains, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences vol.41 n.8 pp903-918.

Reyes, A.V. [2001]. Lillooet Glacier. Simon Fraser University (online). Available: http://www.sfu.ca/~qgrc/people/berto/lillooet.htm

Accessed: March 2007

Canadian Arctic- Axel-Heiberg Island

IvyDam — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 07:34:09 CDT

"Axel Heiberg Island is a forgotten place.
It has no national parks like its famous neighbour Ellesmere,
nor do North Pole explorers, past or present,
start their treks from its northern shores"

(CAH, 2007)

Site Concept Map:

Western Region
Central Region (Our Most Exciting Region!)
Eastern and Northern Region
Southern Region

References

Photo Credits

History
Axel Heiberg Island: 35,180 sq km, in the Arctic Ocean, N Nunavut Territory, Canada, W of Ellesmere Island. It was named by the Norwegian explorer Otto Sverdrup (who explored it 1898-1902) for one of his patrons. The island's plateau surface (3,000-6,000 ft/915-1,830 m high) is deeply indented by fiords (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2000).

Axel Heiberg Island is an island in the northern part of Canada, just west of Ellesmere Island. There are fifteen fiords and five bays by the coastlines. The island has a rugged topography, with two main ice-capped mountains dominating the landscape. One of these is the Mueller Icecap, while the other is Steacie Icecap (University of Guelph, 2007).

Note the difference between an Ice Cap and a Glacier: "An ice cap is a large mass of ice that originates on land by compaction and recrystallization of snow. Ice caps flow outwards in several directions and submerge most or all features of underlying land. An ice mass constrained by bedrock to flow in one direction, usually along a valley, is called a glacier. This distinction is not sharp; for example, an ice cap surrounded by mountains may be drained by a series of valley glaciers" (Canadian Encyclopedia, 2007).

For an in-depth look at Axel Heiberg Island's history click HERE!

Glaciers
Axel Heiberg Island has 1, 121 Glaciers, many of which are unnamed, and several large ice caps (Natural Resources Canada, 2005). In the last 50 years, there has been noted change in the amount of ice coverage on Axel Heiberg Island. Table 1 below notes the change in ice covered areas between 1959-1999.

Table 1: Ice coverage on Axel Heiberg Island 1960-2000

	1960 Area (km2)	2000 Area (km2)	Area Change (km2)	Area Change(%)
Axel Heiberg Island	12,231	12,017	- 214	-1.7

Source: Arctic Net , 2007

Axel Heiberg Island page compiled by:

TEAM AXEL-LENCE:

Ivy Dam
Paulina Nowosielska
Tracey Page
Madelaine Patterson
Louis Zsamboki

Photo Credits

IvyDam — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 07:31:23 CDT

Alean, J., and Hambrey, M., 2006. Glaciers of the World. Glaciers Online. Available: http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/earth_icy_planet/glaciers05- en.html?id=7. March 19, 2007.

Alean, J., and Hambrey, M., 2006. Glaciers of the World. Glaciers Online. Available: http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/earth_icy_planet. White Glacier Pictures. March 25, 2007.

Anderson, D., 2006. Arctic Maps and Satellite Images. Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Universe. Available: http://daleandersen.seti.org/Dale%20Andersen/Arctic%20Maps%20.html. February, 2007.

Arctic 2000 Team, 2000. Expedition and Agate Fiords. Available: www.earth.rochester.edu/.../Arctic2000-7.html. February, 2007.

Canadian Arctic Holidays, 2007. Axel Heiberg Island Exploration. Available: http://www.canadianarcticholidays.ca/file38.htm. March 1, 2007.

Cogley, J, G. and Adams, P, W., 2000. Remote-sensing resources for monitoring glacier fluctuations on Axel Heiberg Island, Arctic, 53(3): 248– 259

Google Earth, 2007, Google Inc, March 22, 2007.

Hember, A., R, Cogley, G. and Ecclestone, J., A., 2003. Volume balance of White Glacier terminus, Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, 1961-2003, 60th Eastern Snow Conference, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.

Martineau, N., 2003. Gypsum Hill Cold Springs. Available: http://geog.mcgill.ca/grad/martineau/research.htm. March 10, 2007.

Natural Resources Canada, 2005. The Atlas of Canada - Axel Heiberg Island. Available: http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/glacier/higharcticislands/plate4-0. January 21, 2007.

Paleomagnetic Research Group, 2007. University of Rochester. Available: www.earth.rochester.edu/.../arctic99/camp1.html. March 19, 2007.

Swisseduc, 2006. Glaciers Online: Glaciers of the World. Available: http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/earth_icy_planet/glaciers11-en.html. February 10, 2007.

Takayuki Shiraiwa’s Page. 2006. Crusoe Glacier. Available: www.chikyu.ac.jp/.../Arcticcanada.html. February 12, 2007.

Trent University, 2007. Glaciology on Axel Heiberg Island: Historical background. Available: http://www.trentu.ca/academic/geography/glaciology/glaxhist.htm. March 4, 2007.

University of Otago, 2005. Glaciers at Otago. Available: http://glaciers.otago.ac.nz/photos/Arctic/AxelHeiberg/axel06.html. January 20, 2007.

BACK TO REFERENCES

BACK TO BASE

Axel Heiberg Sources

IvyDam — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 07:30:36 CDT

Abdalati, W., Krabill, W., Frederick, E., Manizade, S., Martin, C., Sonntag, J., Swift, R., Thomas, R., Yungel, J. and Koerner, R., 2004. Elevation changes of ice caps in the Canadian Arctic Archepelago. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109.

Arctic Net, 2007. A Shallow Ice Core Network for the Canadian Arctic. http://www.arcticnet-ulaval.ca/pdf/ASMtalks/Sharp.pdf. March 10, 2007.

Adams, W. P., Cogley, J. G., Ecclestone, M. A. and Demuth, M. N., 1998. A small glacier as an index of regional mass balance: Baby Glacier, Axel Heiberg Island, 1959-1992. Geografiska Annaler, 80A: 37-50.

Bednarski, J.M., 1998. Quaternary history of Axel Heiberg Island bordering Nansen Sound, Northwest Territories, emphasizing the last glacial maximum. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 35: 520-533.

Canadian Arctic Holidays, 2007. Axel Heiberg Island Exploration. http://www.canadianarcticholidays.ca/file38.htm. March 1, 2007.

Cogley, J. G., Adams, P. W., 2000. Remote-sensing resources for monitoring glacier fluctuations on Axel Heiberg Island. Arctic, 53(3): 248-259.

Cogley, J., Jung-Rothenhaeusler, J., 2002. Digital elevation models of Axel Heiberg Island glaciers Trent technical note 2002-2001. Trent University. http://www.trentu.ca/academic/geography/glaciology/ttn200201.pdf. February 20, 2007.

Columbia Electronic Encycloperdia, 2000. The History Channel - Axel Heiberg Island. http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/search/search.php?word=AXEL+HEIBERG+ISLAND&enc=3552. January 25, 2007.

Copland, L., Sharp, M., and Dowdeswell, J., 2003. The distribution and flow characteristics of surge type glaciers in the Canadian High Arctic. Annals of Glaciology: International Glaciological Society, 36.

Doran, P. T., McKay, C. P.,Adams, W. P., English, M. C., Wharton, R. A., and Meyer, M. A., 1996. Climate forcing and thermal feedback of residual ice covers in the high Arctic. Limnology and Oceaonography, 41: 839-848.

Ecclestone, M., Cogley, J. G., Adams, W. P. and Taylor, C. H., 2000. Ice-related data series from Expedition Fiord, Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, Canada. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Thompson+Glacier%22+characteristics&hl=en&lr March 2, 2007.

Heldmann, J. L., Pollard, W. H., McKay, C. P., Andersen, D. T. and Toon, O. B., 2005. Annual development cycle of an icing deposit and associated perennial spring activity on Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian High Arctic. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 37(1): 127-135.

Hember, A. R, Cogley, G. and Eccestone, J. M, 2003. Volume balance of White Glacier terminus, Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, 1961-2003, 60th EASTERN SNOW CONFERENCE Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.

IAHS/UNESCO, 1998. Fluctuations of Glaciers 1990–1995. Zurich: World Glacier Monitoring Service, 7.

McGill Arctic Research Station. 2007. Local History and Culture. http://siempre.arcus.org/4DACTION/wi_alias_fsDrawPage/1/89. March 4, 2007.

Ommanney, C. S. L., 1969. A study in glacier inventory. The ice masses of Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

Swisseduc. 2006. Glaciers Online: Glaciers of the World. http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers/earth_icy_planet/glaciers11-en.html. February 10, 2007.

Trent University. 2007. Glaciology on Axel Heiberg Island: Historical Background. http://www.trentu.ca/academic/geography/glaciology/glaxhist.htm. March 4, 2007.

University of Guelph, 2007. Axel Heiberg Island. http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpe/environments/maps/detailed/islands/axel_heiberg.htm#axel. January 19, 2007.

PHOTO CREDITS

BACK TO BASE

History of Axel Heiberg Island

IvyDam — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 07:05:06 CDT

During his Norwegian Polar Expedition of 1898-1902, Otto Sverdrup discovered Axel Heiberg Island (Trent University, 2006). He named it after an Oslo brewer who was one of the Expedition sponsors. Peary and Cook were brief visitors to the island, while D.B. Macmillan made more extensive journeys around the coast in 1916-17, as did Stallworthy and Hamilton of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in 1932 and Haig-Thomas in 1938. However, its interior was completely unknown until the first systematic aerial photography in the late 1940s.

In 1947 and 1948, extensive, but not cloudless coverage of Axel Heiberg Island by oblique air photos was provided by the U.S. Army Air Force's Operation Polaris (Trent University, 2006). During 1950-1953, this oblique coverage

was repeated and completed under better conditions by the Royal Canadian Air Force. The photography of 1947 to 1953 seems to be the dawn of recorded history as far as Axel Heiberg Island glaciers are concerned. No material of real glaciological significance has been found in the published accounts of the early explorers; however, their archives, such as Sverdrup's at the National Archives of Canada and Macmillan's at Bowdoin College, still have not been researched.

Source: Trent University, 2006

The first scientific investigations were administered in the 1950s. In 1955 N.J. McMillan and Souther, two geologists of the Geological Survey of Canada, traversed the interior as part of Operation Franklin (Trent University, 2006). McMillan's observations of Bunde Glacier, in northwest Axel Heiberg Island, are the earliest glaciological observations on the ground which were later published.

Since 1959, Trent geographers have been a part of glaciological research on Axel Heiberg Island. In that year, Peter Adams, then beginning graduate studies at McGill University, assisted Fritz Müller in a reconnaissance of the Expedition Fiord (previously Sør Fjord or South Fiord) area of central Axel Heiberg Island (Trent University, 2006). They installed the first stakes of the mass-balance measurement networks on White and Baby Glaciers, the former named for its colour and the latter for the birth of Müller's daughter. They also began surveying for photogrammetric ground control which eventually lead to the creation and publication of several large-scale maps of the area. This was very significant in terms of the success of subsequent glaciological and other research programmes in the area.

The survey set the stage for the Jacobsen-McGill Arctic Research Expedition, a scientific venture having wide ranging interests across the natural sciences with a focus on glaciology. It was based at what is now the McGill Arctic Research Station at Colour Lake, close to the terminus of Thompson Glacier (MARS, 2006).

Between the years 1960 to 1962, Expedition activity was most intense, although scientific work has continued at the Research Station until today. In each of the 1960 and 1961 Expeditions, the personnel numbered greater than 20 MARS, 2006). Work done during those early years resulted in publications in botany, cartography, geology, geomorphology, geophysics, limnology and meteorology in addition to the glaciological studies which were the main goal of Fritz Müller, the expedition leader and principal investigator. Work in aerial photography and photogrammetry, ground survey and cartography was coordinated and had particularly long lasting results as far as later research was concerned. Maps

Source: Trent University, 2006

of the terminuses of White Glacier, Thompson Glacier and Crusoe Glacier, and of Baby Glacier in its entirety, were published at a scale of 1:5,000. Other maps were published at scales of 1:10,000 (White Glacier; two sheets), 1:50,000 (Thompson Glacier region) and 1:100,000 (Expedition Fiord area - Central Region).

The Centre for Northern Studies and Research, McGill University, Montreal, maintained the programme of glaciological measurement and investigation. It also published a series of "Axel Heiberg Island Research Reports" containing much of the scientific contribution made by the Expedition. Responsibility for the programme was later transferred to Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich; the institution Müller moved to in 1970 (MARS, 2006).. Glaciologists who were trained or who worked on Axel Heiberg Island during the 1960s and 1970s include Peter Adams, Keith Arnold, Heinz Blatter, Roger Braithwaite, Almut Iken, Atsumu Ohmura, Simon Ommanney, Koni Steffen and Gordon Young. For example Simon Ommanney's glacier inventory of Axel Heiberg Island was one of the first to be completed for a region of substantial size. Heinz Blatter drilled several holes to the bed of White Glacier, producing geophysical estimates of its thickness as well as exhibiting the fact it is a polythermal glacier. Atsumu Ohmura developed a pioneering model of microclimatic interactions between surfaces of glacier ice, tundra and sea ice, while Keith Arnold applied terrestrial photogrammetry methods in order to study the terminus fluctuations of White Glacier.

Fritz Müller died while leading a field party on a Swiss glacier in 1980. As a consequence the measurement series on White Glacier and Baby Glacier were terminated.

Peter Adams was invited to return to Axel Heiberg Island in 1983; under his direction and later that of Graham Cogley, the measurement programme on White Glacier has been maintained by Trent University (Trent University, 2006). However, measurements on Baby Glacier were not resumed until 1989. Miles Ecclestone has been the leading field worker for Trent since 1984, and has spent the longest scientific time at Expedition Fiord out of all researchers to date. Other Trent staff and students who have worked from the McGill Arctic Research Station include Jim Buttle, Greg Crocker, Peter Doran, Mike English, Frederik Jung-Rothenhäusler, Don Pierson, Candice Stuart and many others.

Source: Trent University, 2006

BACK TO BASE

Glaciers of the BC South Coastal Area

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 01:19:24 CDT

A	B	C	D
	Bell Glacier	Carter Glacier	Dais Glacier
Agur Glacier	Benvolio Glacier	Castle Tower Glacier	Dauntless Glacier
Armchair Glacier	Berna Glacier	Cataract Glacier	Decker Glacier
Astarte Glacier	Bert Glacier	Chaos Glacier	Diamond Glacier
	Bishop Glacier	Cheakamus Glacier	Diavolo Glacier
	Bravo Glacier	Cheekye Glacier	Dorothy Glacier
	Breccia Glacier	Corridor Glacier
	Byamee Glacier	Corrie Glacier
	Black Glacier	Curtain Glacier
		Cannonade Glacier
		Confederation Glacier
		Cathedral Glacier

E	F	G	H
Escape Glacier	Fitzsimmons Glacier	Garibaldi Glacier	Helm Glacier
	Forger Glacier	Gray Glacier	Hoodoo Glacier
	Fleurs de Neiges Gl.	Geddes Glacier
	Fury Glacier	Griffin Glacier
	Fan Glacier
	Finality Glacier
	Franklin Glacier

I	J	K	L
Iago Glacier	Jambeau Glacier	Katzie Glacier	Lava Glacier
Icemantle Glacier	Jubilee Glacier		Lillooet Glacier
Isosceles Glacier
Ice Valley Glacier
Isolation Glacier

M	N	O	P
Macbeth Glacier	Needles Glacier	Overlord Glacier	Phalanx Glacier
Malemute Glacier	Nimbus Glacier	Oval Glacier	Phoenix Glacier
McBride Glacier	North Pitt Glacier		Piluk Glacier
Mystery Glacier			Pike Glacier
			Platform Glacier
			Parallel Glacier
			Portal Glacier

U	V	W	X
Ubyssey Glacier		Warren Glacier
		Waddington Glacier
		Wedgemount Glacier
		Weart Glacier
		Whistler Glacier
		Whitetip Glacier
		Wind Cirque Glacier

Y	Z	Icefields	Icefields
		Compton Icefield
		Garibaldi Icefield
		Mamquam Icefield
		Misty Icefield
		Snowcap Icefield

Note: This list is not an exhaustive list. There are thousands of glaciers within the BC South Coastal Area, this list is just a portion of those present.
Return to Site Map

Temperature of Southern Coastal British Columbia

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 01:17:17 CDT

The southern coast of British Columbia is a temperate region and hosts some of the most consistently mild temperatures in Canada. Temperatures at sea-level range from 2C in the winter to 36C in the summers. These mild temperatures are not characteristic of the entire region. Temperatures drop and conditions become more similar to the rest of Canada as altitude increases. The change in temperature and climatic conditions have allowed for glaciers, ice caps, and ice fields to persist and thrive regardless of mild temperatures at lower altitudes. In these high altitude regions, temperatures can range from 5C to -20C depending on the season and altitude. (Ministry of the Environment, 2006)

Figure: Mean January (Winter) Temperatures. (Modified from PRISM Group, 2000)

Consistently cold winter temperatures allow for sufficient snow accumulation which, in turn results in seasonal advance of glaciers in the Coastal Mountains. Mild spring and summer temperatures however, can be assumed to result in melting and loss of ice mass and seasonal glacial retreat.

Figure: Mean July (Summer) Temperatures. (Modified from PRISM Group, 2000)

WHATS NEXT? Need More Information?
RETURN TO REGIONAL CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT
CONTINUE TO PRECIPITATION INFORMATION

References:
Ministry of the Environment [2006]. Biogeoclimatics Units of British Columbia. Government of British Columbia

(online). Available: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/ecology/ecoregions/bec.html Accessed: March 2007

PRISM Group [2000]. Precipitation and Temperature Images. Oregon State University (online).

Available: http://www.ocs.orst.edu/prism/state_products/bcs_maps.phtml Accessed: March 2007

Precipitation of Southern Coastal British Columbia

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 01:15:40 CDT

Southern British Columbia has a wide range of precipitation patterns. The region is affected by both the Pacific Ocean which moves saturated warm air from the ocean landward and the Western Orogenies, the Coastal Mountain Range, which act as an obstruction forcing the saturated air upwards. Orographic precipitation dominates this region of the province. Southern BC has variable annual precipitation values ranging from <1mm/yr to >8000mm/year. Lower elevations receive most of the precipitation, whereas the higher elevations are variable.
(PRISM Group, 2000)

Figure: Mean annual precipitation values, Southern BC. (Modifies from PRISM Group, 2000).

While most of the precipitation falls at lower altitudes, or at sea-level, the predominant westerly winds drive the saturated air to higher altitudes allowing precipitation to fall in alpine regions of BC as well (PRISM Group, 2000). This is of particular importance to the glaciers and ice fields of the area as high precipitation allows for adequate snow accumulation during the winter season. This results in the addition of mass to glaciers in the area which promotes the advance of the glaciers.

Where to next?

RETURN TO REGIONAL CLIMATE & ENVIRONMENT
RETURN TO SITE MAP

References:
PRISM Group [2000]. Precipitation and Temperature Images. Oregon State University (online).

Available: http://www.ocs.orst.edu/prism/state_products/bcs_maps.phtml Accessed: March 2007.

Regional Climate and Environment

NickW — Mon, 16 Apr 2007 01:14:06 CDT

Climate of South Western Coastal BC

Figure: Climate Zones of British Columbia- Coastal climate indicated by emerald green, Alpine indicated by black. (Modified from Ministry of the Environment, 2006)

Coastal British Columbia includes the Coast Mountains and the islands along the west coast of the province. Unlike the rest of Canada, this region has a unique climate known as the a coastal climate. Generally this region hosts warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. There are a number of variables that influence climate conditions on the SW coast of BC. Of these, the two most prominent factors that dictate weather patterns and subsequent climate conditions are the proximity to the Pacific Ocean and the Coastal Mountains of the Western Cordillera. These features combine to give SW coastal BC the mildest and most temperate climate in all of Canada (Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

The Pacific Ocean is the mechanism that drives the weather effecting British Columbia. Warm currents from the south encounter cold currents from the north. The mixing of these currents is an essential process driving the weather of BC. The Pacific Ocean, provides the necessary water for the evaporation and subsequent precipitation common to the the SW coast (Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

In addition to the ocean and its processes, the southern Coast Mountains are a physical barrier to the prevailing westerly winds which carry heavily saturated air masses off the Pacific Ocean towards the West Coast of Canada. These winds encounter the physical barrier (the Coast Mountains) and are forced upwards. Adiabatic cooling forces these saturated air masses to condense as the air is forced upward. As a result frequent precipitation occurs on the windward side of the Coast Mountains, and the Western Cordillera as a whole.

These weather patterns have an important control on the glacial systems in this region. The spatial distribution of precipitation and the varied accumulations in different parts of the Mountains will dictate the amount of precipitation an ice field or glacial accumulation zone receives. In general, ice fields and glaciers on the windward side of the mountains receive more precipitation and are therefore more active during winter accumulation months, as opposed to glaciers on the leeward side of the mountain which do not receive as much precipitation.

MORE INFO:

References:
Ministry of the Environment [2006]. Biogeoclimatics Units of British Columbia. Government of British Columbia

(online). Available: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/ecology/ecoregions/bec.html Accessed: March 2007.

Q	R	S	T
	Radiant Glacier	Scimitar Glacier	Tellot Glacier
	Regal Glacier	Sentinel Glacier	Terra Alba Glacier
	Repose Glacier	Snow Bowl Glacier	Terrarosa Glacier
	Remote Glacier	Shiverick Glacier	Tiedemann Glacier
	Roovers Glacier	Solitude Glacier	Thunderclap Glacier
		South Pitt Glacier	Tremor Glacier
		Sphinx Glacier	Trorey Glacier
		Spire Glacier	Turner glacier
		Splendour Glacier	Tyee Glacier
		Staircase Glacier
		Stave Glacier
		Smoking Canyon Glacier
		Sunrise Glacier
		Shadow Glacier
		Shelf Glacier